Health care

What is Cervical Cancer ?

Cervical cancer is one of the most common cancers that affect a woman’s reproductive organs. Various strains of the human papillomavirus (HPV), a sexually transmitted infection, play a role in causing most cases of cervical cancer.

When exposed to HPV, a woman’s immune system typically prevents the virus from doing harm. In a small group of women, however, the virus survives for years before it eventually converts some cells on the surface of the cervix into cancer cells. Half of cervical cancer cases occur in women between ages 35 and 55.

Thanks largely to Pap test screening, the death rate from cervical cancer has decreased greatly over the last 50 years. Still, every year more than 11,000 women in the United States are diagnosed with invasive cervical cancer, and nearly 4,000 die of cervical cancer, according to the American Cancer Society. Around the world, cervical cancer is the third-leading cause of cancer death in women.

Symptoms of Cervical Cancer

You may not experience any cervical cancer symptoms – early cervical cancer generally produces no signs or symptoms.

As the cancer progresses, these cervical cancer symptoms and signs may appear : -

* Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between periods or after menopause

* Watery, bloody vaginal discharge that may be heavy and have a foul odor

* Pelvic pain or pain during intercourse

Causes of Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer most commonly begins in the thin, flat cells that line the bottom of the cervix (squamous cells). Squamous cell carcinomas account for about 80 percent of cervical cancers. Cervical cancer can also occur in the glandular cells that line the upper portion of the cervix. Called adenocarcinomas, these cancers make up about 15 percent of cervical cancers. Sometimes both types of cells are involved in cervical cancer. Very rare cancers can occur in other cells in the cervix.

What causes squamous cells or glandular cells to become abnormal and develop into cancer isn’t clear. However, it’s certain that the sexually transmitted infection called human papillomavirus (HPV) plays a role. Evidence of HPV is found in nearly all cervical cancers. However, HPV is a very common virus and most women with HPV never develop cervical cancer…

Treatments of Cervical Cancer

Limited, noninvasive cancer

Treatment of cervical cancer that’s confined to the outside layer of the cervix typically requires treatment to remove the abnormal area of cells. For most women in this situation, no additional treatments are needed.

Procedures to remove noninvasive cancer include : -

* Cone biopsy (conization) : – During this surgery, the doctor uses a scalpel to remove a cone-shaped piece of cervical tissue where the abnormality is found.

* Laser surgery : – This operation uses a narrow beam of intense light to kill cancerous and precancerous cells.

* Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) : – This technique uses a wire loop to pass electrical current, which cuts like a surgeon’s knife, and remove cells from the mouth of the cervix.

* Cryosurgery : – This technique involves freezing and killing cancerous and precancerous cells.

* Hysterectomy : – This major surgery involves removal of the cancerous and precancerous areas, the cervix and the uterus. Hysterectomy is usually done only in certain selected cases of noninvasive cervical cancer.

Invasive cancers

Cervical cancer that invades deeper than the outside layer of cells on the cervix is referred to as invasive cancer and requires more extensive treatment. Treatment for cervical cancer depends on several factors, such as the stage of the cancer, other health problems you may have and your own preferences about treatment.

Treatment options may include : -

* Surgery : – Surgery to remove the uterus (hysterectomy) is typically used to treat the early stages of cervical cancer. A simple hysterectomy involves the removal of the cancer, the cervix and the uterus. Simple hysterectomy is typically an option only when the cancer is very early stage – invasion is less than 3 millimeters (mm) into the cervix. A radical hysterectomy – removal of the cervix, uterus, part of the vagina and lymph nodes in the area – is the standard surgical treatment when there’s an invasion of greater than 3 mm into the cervix and no evidence of tumor on the walls of the pelvis.

Hysterectomy can cure early-stage cervical cancers and prevent cancer from coming back, but removing the uterus makes it impossible to become pregnant in the future. Expect about six weeks of recovery time. Temporary side effects of radical hysterectomy include pelvic pain and difficulty with bowel movements and urination.

* Radiation : – Radiation therapy uses high-powered energy to kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy can be given externally using external beam radiation or internally (brachytherapy) by placing devices filled with radioactive material near your cervix. Radiation therapy is as effective as surgery for early-stage cervical cancer. For women with more advanced cervical cancer, radiation is often the best treatment.

Both methods of radiation therapy can be combined. Radiation therapy can be used alone, with chemotherapy, before surgery to shrink a tumor or after surgery to kill any remaining cancer cells. Side effects of radiation to the pelvic area include upset stomach, nausea, diarrhea, bladder irritation and narrowing of your vagina, which can make intercourse difficult. Premenopausal women may stop menstruating as a result of radiation therapy and begin menopause.

* Chemotherapy : – Chemotherapy uses strong anti-cancer chemicals to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy drugs, which can be used alone or in combination with each other, are usually injected into a vein and they travel throughout your body killing quickly growing cells, including cancer cells. Low doses of chemotherapy are often combined with radiation therapy, since chemotherapy may enhance the effects of the radiation.

Higher doses of chemotherapy are used to control advanced cervical cancer that may not be curable. Side effects of chemotherapy depend on the drugs being administered, but generally include diarrhea, fatigue, nausea and hair loss. Certain chemotherapy drugs may cause infertility and early menopause in premenopausal women.

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The most common victims of cervical cancer are older woman (i.e. 40+). Cervical Cancer Vaccine Controversy Cervical cancer is generally caused by HPV (human papilloma virus) which gets transmitted through sexual contact and over a period of time (which can last for years) leads to cancerous cervix cells.

Prevention against cervical cancer

Since HPV gets sexually transmitted, having multiple sex partners can increase the chances of occurrence of cervical cancer. The anti-bodies produced by our body are the best guard against HPV and anything that causes our immune system to weaken can also aid in development of cervical cancer. In that sense, taking good care of your health too is a preventive measure for cervical cancer.

Symptoms of cervical cancer

The most common symptoms of cervical cancer include pelvic pain or pain during intercourse, unexpected vaginal discharge or bleeding, increase in the frequency of urination etc. However, the occurrence of these symptoms doesn’t necessarily imply cervical cancer. These symptoms just suggest that cervical cancer could be a possibility and hence point to the need of undergoing other cervical cancer tests

Detecting cervical cancer

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One of the best ways of detecting cervical cancer is to undergo routine/ regular cervical cancer screening tests. The cervical cancer screening test (i.e. the pap test or the pap smear test) is one of the best ways of catching cervical cancer in early stages. This test is not at all painful and just involves brushing off of cells from your cervix for microscopic examination. The pap test results are generally given as a rating on a scale of 1 to 5 where in 1 indicates normal cervix cells and 5 indicates serious cancer signs. Though medical research is constantly trying to create new and better ways of detecting cervical cancer, Pap tests are the best technique that we have available today for early detection of cervical cancer. However, pap tests are not always accurate and if other symptoms strongly suggest cervical cancer, a second round of cervical tests might be recommended by the doctor.

Treatment of cervical cancer

The treatment of cervical cancer is effective mostly when the cervical cancer is detected while it is still in its early stages. The treatment involves surgical procedures (including removal of uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries), chemotherapy and radiation. The earlier you are able to detect cervical cancer, the better are your chances of cure. In fact, pap tests can even detect pre-cancerous stage and hence make the treatment of cervical cancer even more effective.

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And even then most of the typical symptoms are not extreme enough to suspect a condition of such magnitude, unless a woman has a genetic predisposition for it. Cervical Cancer Causes Of Yet, women should still be knowledge of ovarian cancer. Perhaps if they go to the doctor right as they are noticing their bodies going awry, they could increase their chances of survival, even if such an increase is very slight.

So, what are the most common signs of ovarian cancer? Ironically, most of them will be in the abdominal area. In fact, one of the most infamous signs involves swelling of the abdominal region. This is swelling is due to the increased fluid production that occurs in response to the ovarian tumors that are developing; it is not fat. However, since abdominal swelling is associated more with gaining weight than a sign of ovarian cancer, many women won’t think anything of it. But if the swelling is accompanied by other abdominal symptoms, such as indigestion, bowel changes or abdominal pain, a woman should get herself screened for the condition.

Then there are the signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer involving the reproductive region. For example, a woman could have painful intercourse despite being adequately aroused and lubricated. Women who have undergone menopause may get unexplained post-menopausal bleeding. And if a woman is not menopausal, she may have bleeding in between periods. Of course, menopausal women may be more alarmed at vaginal bleeding, so they would be more prompted to go to the doctor. Yet, pre-menopausal women may think their bleeding is from wild hormones rather than a sign of cancer.

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If a woman has any of the above-mentioned ovarian cancer symptoms, she should discuss them with her doctor. If the doctor suspects ovarian cancer, he or she will perform a variety of tests. The most common is called a transvaginal ultrasound, where doctors can get a visual picture of what is going on in the ovaries. There are also blood tests that may be taken, to determine if the body is producing some of the proteins that are created by cancer cells.

In conclusion, the signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer are not excessive, but are still vital indicators of whether or not a person has the disease. Don’t overlook them. Remember, that each of the signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer are still abnormal, even if the cause is something less serious. You will still want to go to the doctor to make sure that everything is functioning properly. Either way, scheduling the doctor’s appointment and getting yourself seen will put a world of pressure off of you, because you will know officially what is going on. So, don’t delay; go on and discuss these symptoms with your doctor.

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Cervical Cancer

What is Cervical Cancer ?

Cervical cancer is one of the most common cancers that affect a woman’s reproductive organs. Various strains of the human papillomavirus (HPV), a sexually transmitted infection, play a role in causing most cases of cervical cancer.

When exposed to HPV, a woman’s immune system typically prevents the virus from doing harm. In a small group of women, however, the virus survives for years before it eventually converts some cells on the surface of the cervix into cancer cells. Half of cervical cancer cases occur in women between ages 35 and 55…

 

Symptoms of Cervical Cancer

You may not experience any cervical cancer symptoms — early cervical cancer generally produces no signs or symptoms.

As the cancer progresses, these cervical cancer symptoms and signs may appear : -

Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between periods or after menopause Watery, bloody vaginal discharge that may be heavy and have a foul odor Pelvic pain or pain during intercourse

 

Causes of Cervical Cancer

In general, cancer begins when healthy cells acquire a genetic mutation that turns normal cells into abnormal cells. Healthy cells grow and multiply at a set rate, eventually dying at a set time. Cancer cells grow and multiply out of control, and they don’t die. The accumulating abnormal cells form a mass (tumor). Cancer cells invade nearby tissues and can break off from an initial tumor to spread elsewhere in the body (metastasize).

Cervical cancer most commonly begins in the thin, flat cells that line the bottom of the cervix (squamous cells). Squamous cell carcinomas account for about 80 percent of cervical cancers. Cervical cancer can also occur in the glandular cells that line the upper portion of the cervix. Called adenocarcinomas, these cancers make up about 15 percent of cervical cancers. Sometimes both types of cells are involved in cervical cancer. Very rare cancers can occur in other cells in the cervix.

 Risk factors of Causes of Cervical Cancer

Many sexual partners : – The greater your number of sexual partners — and the greater your partner’s number of sexual partners — the greater your chance of acquiring HPV.

Early sexual activity : – Having sex before age 18 increases your risk of HPV. Immature cells seem to be more susceptible to the precancerous changes that HPV can cause.

Other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) : – If you have other STDs — such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis or HIV/AIDS — you have a greater chance of also having acquired HPV.

A weak immune system : – Most women who are infected with HPV never develop cervical cancer. However, if you have an HPV infection and your immune system is weakened by another health condition, you may be more likely to develop cervical cancer.

 

Cigarette smoking : – The exact mechanism that links cigarette smoking to cervical cancer isn’t known, but tobacco use increases the risk of precancerous changes as well as cancer of the cervix. Smoking and HPV infection may work together to cause cervical cancer.

 

Diagnosis

If you experience signs and symptoms of cervical cancer or if a Pap test has revealed cancerous cells, you may undergo further tests to diagnose your cancer.

 

To make a diagnosis, your doctor may : -

 

Examine your cervix : – During an exam called colposcopy, your doctor uses a special microscope (colposcope) to examine your cervix for abnormal cells. If your doctor identifies unusual areas, he or she may take a small sample of cells for analysis (biopsy).

 

Take a sample of cervical cells : – During a biopsy procedure your doctor removes a sample of unusual cells from your cervix using special tools. During one type of biopsy — punch biopsy — your doctor uses a circular knife to remove a small circular section of the cervix. Other special types of biopsy may be used depending on the location and size of the unusual area of cells.

 

Remove a cone-shaped area of cervical cells : – A cone biopsy (conization) — so called because it involves taking a cone-shaped sample of the cervix — allows your doctor to obtain deeper layers of cervical cells for laboratory testing. Your doctor may use a scalpel, laser or electrified wire loop to cut away the tissue.

 

Complications

Treatments for invasive cervical cancer often make it impossible to become pregnant in the future. For many women — especially younger women and those who have yet to begin a family — infertility is a distressing side effect of treatment. If you’re concerned about your ability to get pregnant in the future, discuss this with your doctor.

For a specific subgroup of women with early cervical cancer, fertility-sparing surgery may be a treatment option. A surgical procedure to remove your cervix and surrounding lymphatic tissue only (radical trachelectomy) may preserve your uterus. Early studies of radical trachelectomy suggest that cervical cancer can be cured using this technique, though it isn’t appropriate for every woman and there may be added risks to this surgery. Future pregnancies may be possible, but are considered high risk because removing the cervical tissue can lead to a higher incidence of miscarriage and premature birth…

 

Treatments of Cervical Cancer

Treatment of cervical cancer that’s confined to the outside layer of the cervix typically requires treatment to remove the abnormal area of cells. For most women in this situation, no additional treatments are needed..

 

 

 

 

 

 

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We Care Core Values

We have a very simple business model that keeps you as the centre.

Having the industry’s most elaborate and exclusive Patient Care and Clinical Coordination teams stationed at each partner hospital, we provide you the smoothest and seamless care ever imagined. With a ratio of one Patient Care Manager to five patients our patient care standards are unmatched across the sub continent.

 

More or less 80,000 women were diagnosed in 2005 with cancer (pelvic gynecological malignancy) and a lot of these cases were uterine cancer. Cervical Cancer Staging PrognosisOf uterine cancers around 95% are endometrial. Uterine cancer mostly occurs in postmenopausal women and is basically abnormal cell growth in the uterus (neoplasm).

Endometrial uterine cancers, in many cases, are curable as well as being highly treatable – treatment methods include medications, surgical options, chemotherapy and radiation, depending on relevant protocols.

Once a problem is diagnosed the appropriate treatment can commence. The symptom most common in uterine cancer is postmenopausal bleeding and the majority of women will identify this as a warning sign that they may have a problem and require medical help. Fortunately only 10% to 20% women with postmenopausal bleeding symptoms in fact have malignant growths – abnormal bleeding must be medically evaluated without delay as this often results in a diagnosis of the disease at its first stage when it is potentially curable and highly treatable.

Some endometrial cancer risk factors are infertility (or no children), unopposed estrogen, late menopause, obesity, diabetes, diet high in animal fat, hypertension and radiation therapy.

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The possibilities that a postmenopausal bleeding problem is in fact a malignancy increases as women age. Uterine cancer symptoms which are common are pelvic region pains, painful sexual intercourse and painful urination.

Other symptoms may include a vaginal secretion or drainage that is purulent (contains pus), opaque and thick drainage of dead tissue and cells and typically indicates an infection. Some other symptoms of a more advanced stage of the disease include weight loss, pain and changes in bowel and bladder habits.

Fewer than 5% of endometrial cancer cases are diagnosed before any symptoms are presented – usually discovered during annual physical check ups. Cervical cancer however can be identified early through PAP smears and any woman after menopause that shows atypical cells on a Pap smear should be examined and screened for any malignant signs in the uterus. Any woman who has not had a hysterectomy or uterus removed can identify uterine cancer symptoms. Early detection is critical as stages I or 2 of this cancer can in many cases be cured and is highly treatable.

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More or less 80,000 women were diagnosed in 2005 with cancer (pelvic gynecological malignancy) and a lot of these cases were uterine cancer. Cervical Cancer Signs To Look For Of uterine cancers around 95% are endometrial. Uterine cancer mostly occurs in postmenopausal women and is basically abnormal cell growth in the uterus (neoplasm).

Endometrial uterine cancers, in many cases, are curable as well as being highly treatable – treatment methods include medications, surgical options, chemotherapy and radiation, depending on relevant protocols.

Once a problem is diagnosed the appropriate treatment can commence. The symptom most common in uterine cancer is postmenopausal bleeding and the majority of women will identify this as a warning sign that they may have a problem and require medical help. Fortunately only 10% to 20% women with postmenopausal bleeding symptoms in fact have malignant growths – abnormal bleeding must be medically evaluated without delay as this often results in a diagnosis of the disease at its first stage when it is potentially curable and highly treatable.

Some endometrial cancer risk factors are infertility (or no children), unopposed estrogen, late menopause, obesity, diabetes, diet high in animal fat, hypertension and radiation therapy.

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The possibilities that a postmenopausal bleeding problem is in fact a malignancy increases as women age. Uterine cancer symptoms which are common are pelvic region pains, painful sexual intercourse and painful urination.

Other symptoms may include a vaginal secretion or drainage that is purulent (contains pus), opaque and thick drainage of dead tissue and cells and typically indicates an infection. Some other symptoms of a more advanced stage of the disease include weight loss, pain and changes in bowel and bladder habits.

Fewer than 5% of endometrial cancer cases are diagnosed before any symptoms are presented – usually discovered during annual physical check ups. Cervical cancer however can be identified early through PAP smears and any woman after menopause that shows atypical cells on a Pap smear should be examined and screened for any malignant signs in the uterus. Any woman who has not had a hysterectomy or uterus removed can identify uterine cancer symptoms. Early detection is critical as stages I or 2 of this cancer can in many cases be cured and is highly treatable.

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It may present with vaginal bleeding but symptoms may be absent until the cancer is in its advanced stages, which has made cervical cancer the focus of intense screening efforts using the Pap smear. Hpv Cervical Cancer Causes In developed countries, the widespread use of cervical screening programs has reduced the incidence of invasive cervical cancer by 50% or more.

The cervix is the lower part of the uterus (womb). It is sometimes called the uterine cervix. The body (upper part) of the uterus, is where a fetus grows. The cervix connects the body of the uterus to the vagina (birth canal). The part of the cervix closest to the body of the uterus is called the endocervix. The part next to the vagina is the exocervix (or ectocervix). The place where these 2 parts meet is called the transformation zone. Most cervical cancers start in the transformation zone.

About 85% of cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, which develop in the scaly, flat, skinlike cells covering the cervix. Most other cervical cancers are adenocarcinomas, which develop from gland cells, or adenosquamous carcinomas, which develop from a combination of cell types.

Symptoms of Cervical Cancer

Symptoms usually don’t appear until abnormal cervical cells become cancerous and invade nearby tissue. When this happens, the most common symptom is abnormal bleeding, which may start and stop between regular menstrual periods or may occur after sexual intercourse.

Bleeding from the vagina that is not normal,or a change in your menstrual cycle that you can’t explain.

Menstrual periods that last longer and are heavier than before. Bleeding after sexual intercourse, douching, or a pelvic exam.

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Pain during urination: Bladder pain or pain during urination can be a symptom of advanced cervical cancer. This cervical cancer symptom usually occurs when cancer has spread to the bladder.

Causes of Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer most commonly begins in the thin, flat cells that line the bottom of the cervix (squamous cells). Squamous cell carcinomas account for about 80 percent of cervical cancers. Cervical cancer can also occur in the glandular cells that line the upper portion of the cervix.

Genetic material that comes from certain forms of HPV has been found in cervical tissues that show cancerous or precancerous changes.

Most cervical cancer is caused by a virus called human papillomavirus, or HPV. You get HPV by having sex with someone who has it. There are many types of the HPV virus. Not all types of HPV cause cervical cancer. Some of them cause genital warts, but other types may not cause any symptoms.

The virus is a sexually transmitted disease. There are more than 50 types of human papilloma virus (HPV) that infect humans. Types 6 and 11 usually cause warts, while types 16, 18, 31 and 33 usually result in high-grade cervical dysplasia (CIN-2 and CIN-3) and carcinomas.

More than 90 percent of all cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, and researchers believe that this cancer may be a sexually transmitted disease. There is much evidence that cervical carcinoma is related to sexually transmitted organisms.

Chemical exposure: Women who work on farms or in the manufacturing industry may be exposed to chemicals that can increase their risk of cervical cancer.

Women who have HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, often take drugs that weaken the body’s natural immunity or its ability to fight off disease. These women also have an increased risk for cervical cancer and should be closely monitored by their gynecologist for the development of precancerous changes to the cervix.

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CERVICAL CANCER

     Cervical cancer or cancer of the cervix is a major concern for many women. The cervix is a ring of muscle at the top of the vagina. It is the entrance to the womb. The cervix is the opening of the uterus connected to the upper vagina and known as the neck of the uterus.

     The surface layer of the cervix is made up of two different types of cells, flat cells called squamous cells and tall column-like gland cells called columnar cells. This produces a mucous membrane, but the mucous membrane of the cervix is smooth. The place where squamous and columnar cells meet is known as the transformation zone and this is the area of the cervix where cancer most commonly arises.

     Cervical cancer forms in the interior lining of the cervix, the junction of the vagina and uterus. The development of cervical cancer is slow and occurs over a period of years. The cancer cells may be present in the cervix for 4-10 years before becoming invasive, affecting the deeper tissues and giving rise to symptoms. Even when the cancer is invasive, there is an 80% chance of successful cure. But once it spreads through the pelvic to the vagina, uterus, bladder it is much more difficult to cure.

CAUSES:

Although the exact cause of cervix cancer are unknown but several risk factors appear o be linked with the disease such as-

1.   Infection HPV virus:

More than 90% of women with cervical cancer are infected with the Human Papilloma Virus (HPV). HPV is the single most important cause for cervical cancer and usually causes warts in the genital area. The viruses are passed from one person to another during unprotected sex. Because HPV is spread mainly through sex, women who start having sex at a young age, who have multiple sexual partners.

Early sexual activity is one of the causes because the cells lining the cervix do not fully mature until the age of 18 and this increases the risk of HPV and cervical cancer.
Other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including Gonorrhea, HIV/AIDS are also increases the risk of HPV.
Long term use of oral contraceptives.
Cigarette smokers also develop the chances of cervix cancer.

SYMPTOMS:

Early cervical cancer generally produces no symptoms but as the cancer grows symptoms may include-

Abnormal vaginal bleeding
An unusual vaginal heavy white discharge
Vaginal bleeding after the menopause
Discomfort during sexual intercourse
Bladder pain during urination
Bleeding from vagina between regular menstrual periods and after sexual intercourse
In advanced stages it causes symptoms like pelvic pain, vaginal leakage of urine, anorexia, weight loss and anemia.

TYPES:

          There are mainly two types of cervical cancer. The most common types of cervical cancer is called Squamous cell carcinoma. It develops from the flat cells which cover the outer surface of the cervix at the top of the vagina. About 85% of cervical cancers are squamous cell cancer

          The other type is called Adeno carcinoma and is less common. It develops mucus producing glandular cells of the endo-cervix.

About 3-5% of cervical cancers have characteristics of both squamous and adenocarcinomas and are called Adenosquamous carcinomas.

 

DIAGNOSIS:

          Cervical cancer is most often diagnosed in middle aged women between the ages of 35-55. It is very rarely seen in women less than 20 years of age but 20% of cases occur in women over 65 years. There are several different tests that can be used to determine a cervical cancer.

1.   Pap Smear Test:

Pre cancerous changes in the cervix can be detected in a screening test known as pap smear test.

2.   Colposcopy:

An instrument called a colposcope is used to take a close detailed look at the cervix and vagina.

3.   Biopsy:

Cervical biopsy is a test in which a protein of tissue sample is taken from the cervix for microscopic examination.

4.   Cone Biopsy:

Cone biopsy, in it a cone shaped samples of cervical tissues are removed for examination.

5.   Conization:

Sometimes a large cone shaped biopsy specimen may have to be taken and this procedure is known as conization.

 6.   Loop-electro surgical excision procedure (LEEP):

In this biopsy method there is an electrical wire which is used to slice off a thin, round piece of tissue for laboratory analysis.

7.   Endo cervical curettage (ECC):

In this a small spoon shaped instrument called a curette to scrape tissue from inside the cervical opening and examined for cancer cells.

8.   CT scan:

A computerized tomography scan involves taking X-rays at different angles to build up a 3-dimensional image of the body.

STAGES:

          The chances of cure are determined by the stages of the cancer at the time of diagnosis for better treatment.

Stage – 1:

          This stage is an invasive cancer with cancer confined to the cervix only and probability of cure is 85-90%.

Stage – 2:

          This stage describes the cancer that has spread beyond the cervix but is still limited to the pelvic area. The probability of cure is 75-80%.

Stage – 3:

          The cancer has extension beyond the cervix but not to the pelvic reason. The cancer may be blocking the uterus. The probability of cure is 50%.

Stage – 4:

          This stage includes cancer that has spread to the bladder and the probability of cure is 30%.

 

TREATMENT:

          Treatment for cervical cancer depends on the tumor size, its location, disease stages and the patient’s age and overall health. Cervical cancer is curable by removing or destroying the pre-cancerous tissue. Cervix cancer most often treated with one or a combination of treatments like surgery, radiation and chemo-therapy.

1)  Surgery:

Surgery is the primary treatment for cancer of the cervix in the early stage.

     i.        Hysterectomy – This surgical procedure is used to remove the cervix and uterus.

   ii.        Bilateral salpingo oophorectomy – This surgical procedure is used to remove the ovaries and fallopian tubes.

  iii.        Pelvic extension – It is a surgical procedure used to remove the cervix, vagina, ovaries, lower colon, rectum, and bladder and nearby lymph nodes. Artificial openings are made for urine and stool to flow from the body.

  iv.        Cry-O-surgery – This surgery technique uses an instrument to freeze and destroy abnormal tissue.

    v.        Laser surgery – A surgical procedure that uses a laser beam as a knife to make bloodless cut in tissue to remove a small piece of tissue.

  vi.        Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) -  A treatment that uses electrical current passed through a thin wire loop as a knife to cutting out the abnormal cells.

2)  Radiation Therapy:

If the tumor has spread more than a small amount beyond the cervix, then radiotherapy is the usual treatment. Radiation therapy uses X-rays or other high energy particles to kill cancer cells. Treatment is concentrated on a specific area. The most common type of radiation is called External beam radiation which is radiation given from a machine outside the body. Patient may receive both internal and external radiation.

3)  Chemotherapy:

Chemotherapy, the use drugs to kill cancer cells. It is used to destroy cancer remaining after surgery, slow the tumors growth or reduce symptoms.

 

WAYS TO REDUCE CERVICAL CANCER:

1)   Girls less than 18 years of age should avoid sexual activity.

2)   Have fewer sexual partners and make sure your partner is having sex only with you.

3)   Use condom, which may help prevent the transmission of HPV.

4)   Annual pelvic examinations, including a pap smear should begin when a woman becomes sexually active.

5)   All women over the age of 20 should have a cervical screen test at least every five years.

 

     Menstrual cycle is a natural process is done in every girl. A girl has gifted by the God to become a mother. As we have this capacity, the possibility is there to have some problem. Now-a-days cervix cancer is a common disease for women as most of the girls have many menstrual problems from the starting. So, if we have some problems then it is not the time to become worried about and do not be hesitate to discuss it with your parents or spouse and gynecologists. Because “A stitch in time saves nine.”

In 2006, between 15,000 and 16,000 women are likely to die from this silent killer. Hpv Cervical Cancer Statistics Ovarian cancer is the 5th leading cause of death among women, and it is responsible for about five percent of all cancer deaths. Chances are your doctor may have misdiagnosed you. That is often the case. A recent British study found 60 percent of all U.K. general practitioners had misdiagnosed their patients.

Three-quarters of British doctors surveyed incorrectly assumed that symptoms only occurred in the late stages of ovarian cancer. Based upon that information, it should be no surprise that Britain has one of the lowest survival rates for ovarian cancer in the Western World – of 6,800 cases diagnosed each year, more than 4,600 die.

A similar discovery was made by University of California researchers, who announced last year, “Four in 10 women with ovarian cancer have symptoms that they tell their doctors about at least four months — and as long as one year — before they are diagnosed.” According to their study of nearly 2,000 women with ovarian cancer, the researchers discovered physicians:

• First ordered abdominal imaging or performed gastrointestinal procedures instead of the more appropriate pelvic imaging and/or CA-125 (a blood test that can detect ovarian cancer).

• Only 25 percent of patients, who reported ovarian cancer symptoms four or more months before diagnosis, were given pelvic imaging or had CA-125 blood tests.

Patients with early symptoms are frequently misdiagnosed. Abdominal imaging or diagnostic gastrointestinal studies are less likely to detect ovarian cancer. According to the American Cancer Society’s website, “The most common symptom is back pain, followed by fatigue, bloating, constipation, abdominal pain and urinary urgency. These symptoms tend to occur very frequently and become more severe with time. Most women with ovarian cancer have at least two of these symptoms.”

By the time a woman reaches the fourth stage of ovarian cancer, her first-line treatment is often Carboplatin, Paclitaxel and Cisplatin as the specific chemotherapy for ovarian cancer. In the first stage, cancer is contained inside one or both ovaries. By stage two, the cancer has spread into the fallopian tubes or other pelvic tissues, such as the bladder or rectum. When the cancer has spread outside the pelvis area into the abdominal cavity, especially when tumor growths are larger than two centimeters on the lining of the abdomen, then ovarian cancer has reached stage three. The fourth and final stage of ovarian cancer is reached when the cancer has spread into other body organs, such as the liver or lungs.

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If detected early, survival rates can be as high as 90 percent. Detected in the advanced stage, the survival rate falls to between 30 and 40 percent. Various imaging tests such as computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, and ultrasound studies can confirm whether a pelvic mass is present. A laparoscopy can help a doctor look at the ovaries and other pelvic tissue to in order to plan out a surgical procedure, or to determine the stage of the ovarian cancer. A biopsy, or tissue sampling, would confirm if there is cancer in your pelvic region, and would help determine how advanced it is. An elevated CA-125 blood test typically suggests the cancer has progressed to the advanced stage.

About 50 percent of ovarian cancer patients are already at an advanced stage by the time a correct diagnosis is made. Only 10 to 14 percent of women with advanced cancer are likely to survive more than five years.

Evaluation of Therapies

While research shows drinking black (or green) tea or taking the herbal supplement gingko biloba may be useful, as a preventative measure, or to reduce risk, a woman has few choices when her cancer has moved to the advanced stage. In the first stage, a woman faces surgical removal of the tumor, and possibly one or both ovaries, to increase her chances of survival. Beyond that, her choice is chemotherapy.

One major problem with chemotherapy is the side effects. The more advanced the cancer, the weaker one may be, reducing the survival rate potential. Survival rates have not changed very much over the past fifteen years. Chemotherapy can increase survival time by as much as 50 percent. But, quality of life suffers. The side effects and increased toxicity, accompanying chemotherapy, reduce how one spends the prolonged survival time.

Some of Paclitaxel’s minor side effects, as reported by Medline Plus, may include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, change in taste, thinned or brittle hair, pain in the joints of the arms or legs, changes in the color of nails, and/or tingling in the hands or toes. More serious side effects may include mouth blistering or fatigue. Some alarming side effects could include unusual bleeding or bruising, dizziness, shortness of breath, severe exhaustion, chest pain, or difficulty swallowing. The most common side effect of Paclitaxel is a decrease of blood cells.

Carboplatin has its own list of side effects. It can reduce platelet production, which can interfere with your blood’s ability to clot. You may become anemic, feeling tired or breathless. Nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and a general feeling of weakness are common with this chemotherapeutic agent.

The latest breed of drugs, such as Eli Lilly’s Gemzar, are hardly getting praise. On March 10th, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) said it was skeptical of the benefits Eli Lilly’s Gemzar, which was being used with Carboplatin to treat ovarian cancer patients. The FDA felt the 2.8 months increased survival time, provided by the Gemzar/Carboplatin combination failed to offset the treatment’s increased toxicity.

In January, the New England Journal of Medicine reported on a remarkable new delivery system of chemotherapy, called the “intra-abdominal, or intraperitoneal, chemotherapy. Those who received the “belly bath” as it is now being called by the media can survive 16 months longer than those receiving intravenous chemotherapy. The major drawback is that 60 percent of the women in the study were unable to complete all six cycles of this chemotherapy. Those who did survived longer, but only two in every five women were able to advance to the end phase of the therapy.

One novel approach, now in Phase III trials at more than 60 research centers across the United States, is OvaRex ® MAb, a murine monoclonal antibody, a type of biotech drug derived from mouse cells. It is being tested by highly regarded United Therapeutics, based in Silver Springs, Maryland. Their lead drug Remodulin, an injection which treats pulmonary arterial hypertension, is currently being marketed inside and outside the United States. More than $32 million has been spent researching, and on the development of, OvaRex and may have it available on the market by 2008.

OvaRex was developed in Canada by a company called ViRexx Medical Corp, and first tested in that country. According to Dr. Lorne Tyrrell, Chief Executive of ViRexx, “The whole study has been set up with the FDA. This is a study where the drug has been given fast track approval and orphan drug status.” Dr. Tyrrell is also on leave (until OvaRex become commercially available) as a Professor of Medical Microbiology and Immunology at the University of Alberta, and Director of the National Centre of Excellence for Viral Hepatitis Research.

OvaRex was tested in Canada, prior to the current Phase III trials in the U.S. “There have been a number of patients that have received OvaRex,” said Dr. Tyrrell, “We’ve had really no adverse effects from these patients.” Dr. Tyrrell explained the procedure, “After being injected intravenously, OvaRex binds to an antigen circulating in the blood.” An antibody’s general purpose is to neutralize an antigen. After an OvaRex injection, the murine monoclonal antibody binds to the CA-125 antigen.

In a way the body is tricked. But, the body is tricked in order to help “save” itself from the harmful antigen. When the OvaRex antibody is bound to the CA-125 antigen, the new combination is identified as a harmful unit. Before then, the antigen wanders through the body, without alerting the body’s defense systems, the dendritic cells, to attack and destroy the harmful antigen. Because the body is trained to identify and zero in on a foreign protein, in this case a mouse protein, it alerts the dendritic cells. Until then, the dendritic cells “tolerate” the cancerous cells. The tolerance is what permits the cancer to spread throughout the body.
OvaRex seeks to break that tolerance. The murine monoclonal antibody is designed to target and bind exclusively to free floating CA-125 antigen.

The dendritic cells refuse to tolerate the foreign protein. When the antibody binds with the free-floating antigen, the dendritic cells recognize the complex (antibody plus antigen) as being foreign and engulf the new unit. The dendritic cells break down the key proteins of this unit, presenting all parts on the cells surface. At the point, the body’s killer T-Cells are alerted to fight the internal threat to the body. Once activated, the T-Cells will replicate and create more killer T-Cells. Any tumor cells expressing the CA-125 antigen is targeted for destruction. The army of T-Cells move to attack the ovarian cancer tumor.

The principle behind OvaRex is to re-program the immune system to harness the body’s defenses to prevent the growth and spread of the ovarian cancer. Will it cure ovarian cancer? “In most cases, it will be a delay,” explained Dr. Tyrrell. “However, I think that, and everyone hopes that, often in some of these tumors, you’re making incremental progress through careful clinical trials and adding new therapy. Each thing we do that improves the outcome when you start to look at the long term benefits of these, we hope that one day we will be able to cure this disease. We think this is a step. This has the potential to be an important step at helping to stimulate immune response to achieve a better outcome. Hopefully, one day we can improve that to where it is a cure.”

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Cervical and breast cancer are two types of cancer which not only affect a woman physically but mentally too e.g. dealing with all the trauma after being diagnosed with the disease. A large percentage of women admit to living in fear of the big C, however cervical or breast cancer free women admit that the thought of contacting the disease never leaves their thoughts.

Sadly, self breast examination seems to be unimportant for some women who choose to ignore a health issue as vital to secure their well being, ignoring any indication that breast cancer is developing can result in the patient having to fight for their life. If an examination of the breasts had taken place in some unfortunate cases the whole scenario would have just involved treating the breast cancer and no involvement of an undertaker. Women need to wise up because if they continue to carry ignorance as an ally to help beat this battle – then they lose. Winning includes modern medicines. Early cancer treatment betters survival odds hence giving a patient the chance to carry on with their life instead of throwing it away.

Aside from bosom blunders where ignorance may have prevailed we have cervical cancer. Women need to be aware of all involvements i.e. what to expect throughout any cervical cancer treatments. The cervix is the lower part of the womb or uterus and is commonly referred to as the ‘neck of the womb’.

The cervix and its purpose are to help maintain a normal pregnancy. In non-pregnant women, the cervix has no obvious function. In the UK cervical cancer is down on paper as the sixth most common cancer in women. It is of the utmost importance for a woman to keep healthy in mind body and soul by having regular cervical cancer smear tests – oft times referred to as a Pap smear test. Smear tests are commonly carried out in order to detect any cell changes that come before cancer. It’s a waiting game, meaning, it can take years for these cell changes detected at the time of a cervical smear test to become cancer. Luckily some changes have been known to go away by themselves.

Women who waited in anticipation for their cancer results said they found it more of an ordeal coping with the wait than that of receiving the actual prognosis (cervical cancer).

Suffering in silence is not healthy, not all abnormal test results indicate that cervical cancer is present. It is through early diagnosis and treatment of pre-cancerous changes that development of actual cancer can be prevented. Early detection is most profound to help fight the disease.

There are two types of this cancer; the squamous cell cancer and aden-ocarcinoma. Cervical smear tests detect the early changes of squamous cell cancer. Early stage growths of certain cancers can be treated with surgery or radiotherapy thus resulting in a cure.

Regular questions asked about cervical cancer are what the causes are; well there is no definite single cause, however study points the finger at a viral infection of the cervix or cancer sticks (cigarettes). Fags are a major health hazard relating to lung cancer, smoking is said to also increase the risk of developing cervical cancer and even the number of partners in youth trial runs of intercourse have also been linked to being connected to the cause. In the UK cervical tests are routinely performed every three years, lives are being saved because of this.

Females face a silent but deadly situation because; pre-cancerous changes of the cervix that show up on cervical smear tests unfortunately do not give symptoms. Undergoing a biopsy of the cervix is the way cervical cancer is diagnosed. The process is normally done with an internal examination called a colposcopy.

Treating cancer of the cervix will purely depend upon the severity of the disuse, meaning, has it spread to the pelvis. A radical hysterectomy or Wertheim’s hysterectomy may be suggested as treatment. It is at this stage that a specialist gynaecologist will conduct surgery. Radiotherapy destroys tumour cells that the gynaecologist cannot see.

Remember “out of sight out of mind”, is not a healthy approach for a cure; a healthy approach is to keep it in mind and any cervical cancer symptoms must be kept in sight.